The Baroque Era Essay Paper Example For Students

The Baroque Era Essay Paper THE BAROQUE AGESocial and Cultural BackgroundBaroque is a term borrowed from the visual arts and one that is usedin many different senses. The Baroque Era applies to the years between1600 and 1750. The most famous composers of this time were Bach, Handel,Vivaldi and Teleman. Politically it was an age of magnificent absolute Monarchs. The mostmagnificent of all was Louis XIV of France. Louis ruled from 1634 until 1713. During this time the need to create a national culture or a regional stylethat would match or surpass the elsewhere created cultural models waspressed for. When looking at Baroque architecture it is noticeable that thesculptures and paintings are never still: they are twisted, moving, struggling,and dramatically lighted. Paintings of the Baroque Era focused more ondramatic subjects and experimented with dramatic lighting. We will write a custom essay on The Baroque Era Paper specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The Baroque Era was concerned with feelings, the stronger thebetter. This could be seen throughout the churches. In church structurethe proportions are grandiose, they are designed to impress and awe theobservers. Gold and rich textures and surfaces can be seen all through thechurches. All of these themes that I have discussed are also clear in the musicof the Baroque period. It paints pictures of vibrant colours and triggersstrong emotions. The desire to discover these themes is evident in theinvention of the exciting new form music, opera, and in the use of operatictechniques in dramatic music for the church. Important Musical DevelopmentsComposer-performers would strive at becoming Kapellmeisers in thisEra. A Kapellmeister is a music director at one of the great courts. Theywere responsible for all the music performed in the court. These positionswere very unstable though and composer were always on the lookout for newopportunities. The responsibilities of performers during this era was to write musicat a furious pace due to the demand. Bach, for example, was responsible forone cantata a week while he was music director at Leipzig. Due to the pacethe music was written, the performers of the pieces had to fill in thedetails. Baroque music can therefore be classified as a type of jazz becausethe soloists would play their own versions of a basic melody with rhythmsection improvises, based on a chord pattern. Baroque music sounds different from music of other periods due toits lack of dynamic range. The composers at this time usually did not specifydynamics on their pieces, they simply wrote loud or soft.The most prominent element in Baroque music was rhythm andtexture. Baroques fast movement generally caused the feeling of rhythmicdrive. Tempos were always constant. The least prominent element wasmelody. Gradual rise of tonality on the other hand was a great Baroqueinnovation. This is the major-minor system that is still used today in thetwentieth century. Opera was one of the most important developments in the BaroqueEra. It began in Florence in 1600. French operas featured more emphasison the orchestra and chorus. During this time Handel invented the oratorio. An oratorio is a large work for soloists, chorus, and orchestra sung inconcert format, without costumes or staging, in a concert hall rather than aspart of a church service. Some other instrumentals formed during this erawere:Concerto Grosso: in three movements, fast-slow-fast, and pits a largegroup of soloists against the larger string ensemble. Suite: a less formal structure consisting of several binary dancemovementsFugue: Latin for flight or chase, denotes a standard Baroquecompositional process. Johann Sebastian Bach, Cantata No. 140Bach is the giant of Western Art. Bach was born in Eisenach, NorthGermany, and was raised by an older brother after he was orphaned. Bachsmost important position came in 1723 and lasted until his death which wasJanuary 28, 1750. He was the Cantor at the church of St.Thomas inLeipzig. He was best known as a keyboard performer. His greatest piecesthough, were his organ pieces. Bach was also known for his Cantatas. Thecantata was written in fairly free form. They were part of a long churchservice. In most cantatas the highest point is during the opening chorus,which is also usually the longest movement. Cantata no.140 Wachet Auf isan excellent example of the chorale cantata form. Bach wrote it for one ofthe final Sundays after Trinity. The song is broken into a five-partstructure: 1) Chorus2) Recitative and Duets-Soloists3) Chorus4) Recitative and Duet-Soloists5) Choral- Chorus and CongregationAnother famous piece by Johann Sebastian Bach was Brande nburgConcerto No.5. The Brandenberg concertos are examples of a Baroqueform known as the concerto gross that is based on the principle of contrastbetween two groups, or sounds of different sounds and at the same timedynamics. The first movement of this piece is in ritornello form. It is madeup of three basic patterns that work well with instruments. The secondmovement heard contains soloists and continues without string orchestra. The third and last movement is made up of soloists and orchestra. .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .postImageUrl , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:hover , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:visited , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:active { border:0!important; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:active , .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5 .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7157332bca614eda285be4c432c576d5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Companies to Watch: The Gap and Nordstroms EssayGeorge Friederich Handel, For Unto Us A Child is Born from MessiahHandel is known as the other Baroque composer. Handel contrastsgreatly with Bach, not only in their style of music but in their personalities,lifestyles, and careers. Handel was not born into a musical family. It wasntuntil the death of his father that he quite his law career to become amusician. After the genre of Italian opera faded Handel hit upon an Englishadaptation of the early oratorio, originally a concert setting of a biblicalstory in Latin. The success of his oratorios and a steady stream of newcompositions made Handel increasingly wealthy and famous. He passed awayin 1759, blind, but was still seen as a celebrity. Due to Messiahs length and its contemplative rather than dramatic approach to nature, it makes it a not typical oratorio. For Unto Us A Child is Born is a splendid example of Handels choral style, an element which makes oratorios so popular. As opposed to Bachs style of writing for only small groups of boys and men, Handel was fond of grandiose effects, such as double choruses. Handels choruses were written strong enough to impress the audience who had paid admission to hear the cantata. The oratorio is written in a three part structure. The three ideas are distinct and are always kept separate, and never combined. Out of this simple, repetitive structure comes a satisfying effect: the listener of this piece feels the triumph and joy of the text due to its easy to follow material. Antonio Vivaldi,Spring from The Four SeasonsBach and Handel are not the only great composer of this era. AntonioVivaldi was another master of music during the Baroque period. Vavaldi was born in 1678 in Venice. His father too was a musician, aviolinist at St.Markss church in Venice. For thirty-six years, from 1704until 1740, he was music director at the Ospedale della Pieta, a school forillegitimate daughters of the aristocracy. He then left his job to conductopera in Italian cities. He eventually wrote concertos not only for violin andstandard winds-oboe, flute, bassoon-but also for instruments such as thepiccolo, mandolin, and guitar. One of his best known works is the Four Seasons. It is a set of fourconcerti grossi which relate to nature during these seasons. The spirit ofchildlike playfulness can be seen throughout out this piece which isimportant to Baroque style. It is very easy to see why Vivaldis pieces arestill played and enjoyed to this day.

Mr Mooney College history Test One essay 3

Mr Mooney College history Test One essay 3 Mr Mooney College history Test One essay 3 Fulcher, Matthew- Test #1 Essay #3 Based on my research the 6 events that I Feel contributed to the strong revolt from the Americans are as follows; Boston Tea party, Stamp Act, Sugar Act, Quebec Act, Intolerable Acts, and Lexington and Concord. The Boston Tea Party was the destruction of tea in Boston. It was a political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, on December 16, 1773. They were disguised as American Indians, and destroyed the entire supply of tea sent by the East India Company in defiance of the American boycott of tea carrying a tax the Americans had not authorized. The British government responded harshly and the episode escalated into the American Revolution. The Stamp Act imposed a direct tax by the British Parliament specifically on the colonies of British America, and it required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. Many colonists considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent. Local protest groups, led by colonial merchants and landowners, established connections through correspondence that created a loose coalition that extended from New England to Maryland. Protests and demonstrations initiated by the Sons of Liberty often turned violent and destructive as the masses became involved. The Sugar Act was a revenue-raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5, 1764. It arrived in the colonies at a time of economic depression. It was an indirect tax, although the colonists were well informed of its presence. A good part of the reason was that a significant portion of the colonial economy during the Seven Years War was involved with supplying food and supplies to the British Army. Colonials, however, especially those affected directly as merchants and shippers, assumed that the highly visible new tax program was the major culprit. As protests against the Sugar Act developed, it was the economic impact rather than the constitutional issue of taxation without representation that was the main focus for the colonists. In May 1764, Samuel Adams drafted a report on the Sugar Act for the Massachusetts assembly, in which he denounced the act as an infringement of the rights of the colonists as British subjects. In the Thirteen Colonies, the act, which had been passed in the same session of Parliament as a number of other acts designed as punishment for the Boston Tea Party and other protests, was passed along with the other Intolerable Acts also known as the Coercive Acts. The provisions of the Quebec Act were seen by the colonists as a new model for British colonial administration, which would strip the colonies of their elected gatherings. It seemed to void the land claims of the colonies by granting most of the Ohio Country to the province of Quebec. The Americans were especially angry that the act established Catholicism as the state church in Quebec. The Americans had fought hard in the French and Indian War, and

Airline Marketing Plan

Executive Summary 1. 0 Executive Summary Puddle Jumpers Airlines, Inc. is a new consumer airline in its formative stages. It is being organized to take advantage of a specific gap in the short-haul domestic travel market. The gap exists in low cost service out of Anytown, U. S. A. The gap in the availability of low cost service in and out of the Anytown hub coupled with the demand for passenger travel on selected routes from Anytown indicates that a new entrant airline could be expected to capture a significant portion of current air travel business at that hub. The management of Puddle Jumpers is experienced in airline start-ups. Previously management grew Private Jet Airlines from a single Boeing 727 to a fleet of 16 MD80 series aircraft. Revenues grew to $130 million in a two year period from 1992 through 1993. Our research and projections indicate that air travel to and from Anytown is sufficient to provide a new carrier with revenues of $110 million dollars in its first full year of operations, utilizing six aircraft and selected short-haul routes. These sales figures are based upon load factors of only 55% in year one. Second year revenues are expected to exceed $216 million dollars with additional aircraft and expanded routes. Load factors for year two are 62%. The Puddle Jumpers plan has the potential for a more rapid ramp-up than was the case with Private Jet due to the nature of the routes and the demand for travel currently in the targeted markets served. In short, the frequency of flights needed to serve Puddle Jumperss target market exceeds the demand that dictated Private Jets growth. These sales levels will produce net profit of just over $1 million in the first operational year and $21. 4 million dollars in flight year two. Profits in year one will be 1% of sales and will improve to 10% of sales with the economies gained in year two. The over-all operational long term profit target will be 16% of sales as net profit in years three, four, and five. The companys long term plan is part of the due diligence package. The first operational year is actually fiscal year two in this plan. The first year of formative operations will burn cash until revenue can commence. This is due to the organizational and regulatory obligations of a new air carrier. Investment activity is needed to handle the expenses of this phase of the business. The following chart illustrates the over-all highlights of our business plan over the first three years. Gross Margin here is approximately 87% of sales since the only costs included in this calculation are travel agent commissions, credit card discounts, and federal excise taxes. Travel agent commissions are calculated on 30% of sales even though management feels the actual number will not exceed 10% of sales. NOTE: For display purposes in this sample plan, numerical values in tables and charts are shown in thousands (000s). Highlights 1. 1 Objectives The Company has the following objectives: 1. To obtain required D. O. T. and F. A. A. certifications on or before March 1, 1997. 2. To commence revenue service on or before July 1, 1997. 3. To raise sufficient seed and bridge capital in a timely fashion to financially enable these objectives. 4. To commence operations with two McDonnell-Douglas MD-80 series aircraft in month one, four by end of month four, and six by end of month six. 5. To add one aircraft per month during year two for a total of 18 at year two end. 1. 2 Mission Puddle Jumpers International Airlines, Inc. has a mission to provide safe, efficient, low-cost consumer air travel service. Our service will emphasize safety as its highest priority. We will operate the newest and best maintained aircraft available. We will never skimp on maintenance in any fashion whatsoever. We will strive to operate our flights on time. We will provide friendly and courteous no frill service. 1. 3 Keys to Success The keys to success are: Obtaining the required governmental approvals. Securing financing. Experienced management. (Already in place). Marketing; either dealing with channel problems and barriers to entry; or solving problems with major advertising and promotion budgets. Targeted market share must be achieved even amidst expected competition. Product quality. Always with safety foremost. Services delivered on time, costs controlled, marketing budgets managed. There is a temptation to fix on growth at the expense of profits. Also, rapid growth will be curtailed in order to keep maintenance standards both strict and measurable. Cost control. The over-all cost per ASM (available seat mile) is pegged at 7. 0 cents or less in 1996 dollars. This ASM factor places Puddle Jumpers in a grouping of the lowest four in the airline industry within the short-haul market. (US Air, the dominate carrier in the Anytown market, averages 12. 0 cents per ASM by comparison). The only three airlines with lower operating costs also operate older and less reliable equipment, and even then the lowest short-haul cost in the airline industry is currently Southwest at 6. 43 cents per ASM. Company Summary 2. 0 Company Summary Puddle Jumpers International Airlines is being formed in July, 1996 as a South State Corporation. Its offices will be in Anytown, Georgia. The founder of Puddle Jumpers is Kenneth D. Smith. Mr. Smith has extensive experience in consumer aviation. His bio as well as the backgrounds of all the members of Puddle Jumperss management team are enclosed herein. 2. 1 Company Ownership Puddle Jumpers International Airlines, Inc. will authorize 20,000,000 shares of common stock. 1,000,000 shares are to be set aside as founders stock to be divided among key management personnel. It is also expected that management stock options will be made available to key management personnel after operations commence. It is expected that founders stock plus option stock will not total more than 15% of authorized shares. Initial seed capital is to be attracted via a convertible debenture sold by Private Placement. This round of funding will have premium conversion privileges vs. later rounds and bridge capital.

Personal Leadership Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal Leadership Development Plan - Essay Example The principles of appreciative coaching are differentiated herein: The Constructivist Principle focuses on the influence of social structures in significantly affecting the behavior of individuals in relation to others. The Positive Principle, as the term implies, centers on the positive aspects of an individual’s life through experiences that have been perceived to be constructive and optimistic in general. In addition, the Anticipatory Principle ventures on anticipated scenarios that become the basis for behavior and decision making processes. The Poetic Principle, on the other hand, creatively utilizes vivid illustrations and storytelling to solicit crucial information, not solely on the facts, but also in terms of emotional experiences. And finally, the Principle of Simultaneity focuses on the premise that â€Å"inquiry is change†¦ (and) intervention† and guidance is redirected to the first inquiry and its influence to effect change. Personal Assessment of Leadership Coaching Skills To increase one’s capacity to lead, coach, and develop others, one realized the need to familiarize oneself with the basic theoretical framework needed for leadership coaching. The objective is to be achieved through a research on secondary literatures on the crucial elements of coaching and leadership from a coaching perspective. As indicated by Peters & Austin (1985), â€Å"coaching is a form of leadership that pulls together people with diverse talents, backgrounds, experiences and interests, encourages them to step up to responsibility" and continued achievement, and treats them as full scale partners and contributors† (p. 232). Likewise, the authors emphasized that â€Å"coaching is not about memorising techniques or devising the perfect game plan. It is about really paying attention to people – really believing them, really caring about them, really involving them†

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Business Law - Essay Example The point of sales are located world wide and it is able to sell its digital content via the iBookstore , iTunes , App Store, and the Mac App Store as well. The company came in to being in the year 1977, and is now regarded as the world’s largest companies. The company currently has assets worth over a $70 billion and now has devised huge plans for this years and the upcoming five years as well. As per the annual report filling which is necessary with the Securities Exchange Commission of the United States , the company will be expanding its retail operations and the business. First off the retail business of teh company will be expanded where an approximate investment of about $900 million will be spent as a result of which the total Apple retail outlets will come to be about 357. In China, the company will be taking an initiative to increase the number of stores because this is the region where Apple faces the problem of the fake Apple stores and since the Chinese market is expanding at the same time as well. Some of the stores of Apple will also be replaced , which include inside the United States as well as outside of the region. Approximately $7 billion will also be spent on the production process equipment , the infrastructure facilities if the company and the enhancements of the information systems ,hardware and software technologies as well. With the construction of the new Apple Campus taking place in California, a significant chunk of the revenue of the company will also be allotted to the purpose of the space ship campus. There are massive research facilities , plants and auditoriums being arranged in the campus which will be expanded over the 150 acres of land. Most importantly , there will be significant expenditure on the ‘solar farm’ idea of the company which will be powerhouse of the data center and this is where nearly all the operations of the iCloud will be carried out. Therefore apart from the space ship campus being buil t in Cupertino, there is another facility being constructed for Apple in North Carolina which will be powered by the solar energy. There will be significant amount of investment in the research, manufacture and the marketing of the products as well, where Apple will be introducing new products in the market that are believed to revolutionize the world of technology. Apple will also be taking measures to improve the supply chain and establish a stronger relationship with its manufacturers, Foxconn. Foxconn came under the limelight of controversies due to the below average working conditions that the entity had and therefore Apple is seeking to improve the labor conditions of the Chinese workers whereas at the same time the company is striving to increase the consumer satisfaction as well. In order to achieve this objective, Apple will be paying for half the cost which is involved in making the working conditions better. Therefore the improvements in the supply chain will be followed by making the working conditions of the manufacturers better, which is Foxconn. The expansion policies of the company will have to take under consideration the administration law which is defined as the law body responsible for the governance of the administration agencies’ activities. Apple has been quite in the limelight for the past many years for the patent infringement law suits which have been filed against various companies and the lawsuits filed by other companies on Apple. Some of these

Personal Narrative- Improved Writing Essay -- Personal Narrative

My first real writing experience happened my junior year at HHS. It was the second to last day of school of my sophomore year, and I happened to be flipping through the course descriptions book, and was thinking of an English class to take next year. Well, I sat there and sat there thumbing through the pages, and finally, one particular class appealed to me. I thought, "WOW, this is a class I should take!" "Yeah right," but I still decided to register for American Lit.anyway. Well, the school year finally ended, and I wasn’t too happy for next year’s school year to begin. "I mean, American Lit. was going to be boring with all the reading, not to mention all the writing, too." But I didn’t consider the writing to be a big problem, because I had gotten to be pretty good at it by my junior year, or so I thought. To move on, the summer didn’t last long enough for me. I had tons of fun being at the cabin, fishing and stuff. But the thought of going back to school bothered me, so that kind of ruined my summer. And before I knew it, I was lying in bed the night before my first day of "hell" tossing and turning all night because I knew I was doomed for the next nine months of my life. "Finally," I said as I woke up after two hours of sleep, "let’s get this over with." I ran out the door without breakfast, and I was already fifteen minutes late by the time I got to school. I walked into my first class. It sucked. I walked into my second class, and that also sucked! American Lit. was next. "I don’t even know why I registered for this," I thought as I strolled into the classroom and took my seat way in the back. The teacher then walked in and said her name was Ms.Schmidt. "Man, she looks pretty damn old," I said under my bre... ...o work through this nasty theme habit. "Now that we have gone over pretty much everything I know about writing a good paper," my teacher said after six months of afterschool sessions, "I want you to write one paper for me, one that will show me my time wasn’t wasted with you." So I went back to my very first paper on Hester Prynne, and rewrote it. I came back the next day, turned it in, and anxiously awaited her comments. "What is takin’ so long for her to read my frickin’ paper?" I asked myself. Fifteen minutes later she was finally done. "My time wasn’t wasted with you. This paper shows me your creativeness as a writer. How you related Hester Prynne’s character to someone you know was really interesting. This paper held my attention throughout its’ entirety. I can’t say enough about your dramatic improvement in writing. I am really proud of you, Alex." Personal Narrative- Improved Writing Essay -- Personal Narrative My first real writing experience happened my junior year at HHS. It was the second to last day of school of my sophomore year, and I happened to be flipping through the course descriptions book, and was thinking of an English class to take next year. Well, I sat there and sat there thumbing through the pages, and finally, one particular class appealed to me. I thought, "WOW, this is a class I should take!" "Yeah right," but I still decided to register for American Lit.anyway. Well, the school year finally ended, and I wasn’t too happy for next year’s school year to begin. "I mean, American Lit. was going to be boring with all the reading, not to mention all the writing, too." But I didn’t consider the writing to be a big problem, because I had gotten to be pretty good at it by my junior year, or so I thought. To move on, the summer didn’t last long enough for me. I had tons of fun being at the cabin, fishing and stuff. But the thought of going back to school bothered me, so that kind of ruined my summer. And before I knew it, I was lying in bed the night before my first day of "hell" tossing and turning all night because I knew I was doomed for the next nine months of my life. "Finally," I said as I woke up after two hours of sleep, "let’s get this over with." I ran out the door without breakfast, and I was already fifteen minutes late by the time I got to school. I walked into my first class. It sucked. I walked into my second class, and that also sucked! American Lit. was next. "I don’t even know why I registered for this," I thought as I strolled into the classroom and took my seat way in the back. The teacher then walked in and said her name was Ms.Schmidt. "Man, she looks pretty damn old," I said under my bre... ...o work through this nasty theme habit. "Now that we have gone over pretty much everything I know about writing a good paper," my teacher said after six months of afterschool sessions, "I want you to write one paper for me, one that will show me my time wasn’t wasted with you." So I went back to my very first paper on Hester Prynne, and rewrote it. I came back the next day, turned it in, and anxiously awaited her comments. "What is takin’ so long for her to read my frickin’ paper?" I asked myself. Fifteen minutes later she was finally done. "My time wasn’t wasted with you. This paper shows me your creativeness as a writer. How you related Hester Prynne’s character to someone you know was really interesting. This paper held my attention throughout its’ entirety. I can’t say enough about your dramatic improvement in writing. I am really proud of you, Alex."

Restoration Period

The restoration is an interesting time in history. People from all over the world, especially Europe, were moving to American. It was during this time that the colonies rebelled and we soon became our own nation. When the period started England had just ended a 20 year civil war. The plague had killed many and England was finally settling down. When the restoration was starting, most authors still modeled everything they did on the classics: Greek, Roman, etc. People were starting to gain an understanding of the world and be less superstitious.With all of the new reasons for things being given by science, religion had to change too. This was also when the smaller minorities of society became more ignored and repressed. But when the puritans fell out of power things started to happen. Theaters re-opened, satire appeared, and so did journalism. The Restoration period was marked by an advance in colonization and overseas trade, by the Dutch Wars, by the great plague (1665) and the great fire of London (1666), by the birth of the Whig and Tory parties, and by the Popish Plot and other manifestations of anti-Catholicism.In literature perhaps the most outstanding result of the Restoration was the reopening of the theaters, which had been closed since 1642, and a consequent great revival of the drama (see English literature). The drama of the period was marked by brilliance of wit and by licentiousness, which may have been a reflection of the freeness of court manners. The last and greatest works of John Milton fall within the period but are not typical of it; the same is true of John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678).The age is vividly brought to life in the diaries of Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, and in poetry the Restoration is distinguished by the work of John Dryden and a number of other poets. Restoration literature, English literature written after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following the period of the Commonwealth. Some literary historians speak of the period as bounded by the reign of Charles II (1660–85), while others prefer to include within its scope the writings produced during the reign of James II (1685–88), and even literature of the 1690s is often spoken of as â€Å"Restoration. By that time, however, the reign of William III and Mary II (1689–1702) had begun, and the ethos of courtly and urban fashion was as a result sober, Protestant, and even pious, in contrast to the sexually and intellectually libertine spirit of court life under Charles II. Many typical literary forms of the modern world—including the novel, biography, history, travel writing, and journalism—gained confidence during the Restoration period, when new scientific discoveries and philosophical concepts as well as new social and economic conditions came into play.There was a great outpouring of pamphlet literature, too, much of it politico-religious, while John Bunyan’s great allegory, Pilgrim’s Pr ogress, also belongs to this period. Much of the best poetry, notably that of John Dryden (the great literary figure of his time, in both poetry and prose), the earl of Rochester, Samuel Butler, and John Oldham, was satirical and led directly to the later achievements of Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and John Gay in the Augustan Age. The Restoration period was, above all, a great age of drama.Heroic plays, influenced by principles of French Neoclassicism, enjoyed a vogue, but the age is chiefly remembered for its glittering, critical comedies of manners by such playwrights as George Etherege, William Wycherley, Sir John Vanbrugh, and William Congreve. (For further discussion of this period, see English literature: The Restoration. ) King Charles I was executed in the January of 1649. He was the supreme King of Britain, with suzerainty over England, Scotland and Ireland. However, he earned a lot of disrespect from the Parliament for his preposterous theory known as Divine Rights of Kings.The Parliament feared he was turning into an absolutist monarch and would eventually sideline the democracy that was so carefully established in Britain. In his final years, he was engaged in Civil Wars. The First English Civil War (1642) was against the Parliament and the Puritans of England. He was defeated in this War in 1645, but he continued his ideologies. In 1948, there was a Second Civil War, and he was defeated again in 1649. This time, he was captured, tried, convicted and finally executed for treason. The Parliament took over, formed a republic that came to be known as the Commonwealth of England.Monarchy, apparently, came to an end. Restoration of Monarchy by Charles II But, what seemed to be an end for monarchy actually turned out to be only a pause. 11 years later, in 1660, Charles I's son, Charles II assumed monarchy once again. The resurgence of monarchy was brought about by a series of historically significant incidents. One of the main leaders of the republi can government formed after Charles I was Oliver Cromwell, who was by title the Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was also the commander of the armies that fought against Charles I in the English Civil Wars.Old Ironsides, as he was referred to, valiantly brought England, Scotland and Ireland under a unanimous republican rule after the execution of Charles I, and he was in fact one of the main persons responsible for his execution. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 of a host of ailments. Historians attribute his death to malaria and urinary infections, but there could have been several other reasons. Cromwell was succeeded by his son Richard as the Lord Protectorate. However, Richard was not popular with the Army. The Army was prompt in removing him.Several other transfers of power later, Charles II issued what is known as the Declaration of Breda on April 4, 1660. This declaration was to lay down the fact that he was interested in accepting the Crown of England. Taking into consideration the various failed seizes of power in England, the Parliament accepted the terms. On 8 May, 1649, the Parliament accepted that Charles II had been the lawful monarch of England after the death of Charles I. Charles II returned from The Hague, where he was exiling, and assumed monarchy of England. This is what is known as the English Restoration.